Women in Dutch Golden Age Paintings: Paragons of Virtue or Vice

In the late 16th century, seven provinces in the Northern Netherlands separated from the Southern ones ruled by the Catholic monarchy in Spain.[1] These Protestant provinces then formed the Dutch Republic, gradually gaining power and achieving economic success through world trade. Around the 17th century came the ‘Golden Age’ of Dutch art, when economic prosperity made artworks affordable for people from all walks of life.[2] New forms of art were developed and became the specialization of many artists of this time, with themes ranging from landscape, still life to portraiture.

Many ‘genre paintings’ were produced, depicting scenes from the daily lives of everyday people. This was so significant that Dutch art is often referred to as ‘The Art of Describing.’[3] On the other hand, though such paintings seem lifelike, they are possibly never the direct transcription of the real world, but are likely to be idealized or romanticized by the artists.[4] In many cases, this was done in order to integrate moral messages into the painting, making it an accessible way of moral education for citizens, which was believed to improve the long-term well-being of people.

Women in Dutch Paintings

While financial and commercial innovations led to the prosperity of the Dutch Republic, they also led to the further separation of work and home, as observed more widely over the world after the industrial revolution.[5] Therefore, distinct gender roles were observed, especially in middle class families. While male members act as active participants of the economy and society, female members were expected to stay at home and administer household affairs. Hence, women are oftentimes presented in Dutch genre paintings in their social roles as housewives, mothers, maids, ladies or widows.[6] Compared with the rest of Europe during the 17th century, where the convention was portraying women in classical myths and allegories. Dutch art tended to show women as their actual characters in the society.[7]

Virtue and vice

Virtue, defined as ‘conformity to a standard of right, or a particular moral excellence,’ is the good deeds or characteristics of a person.[8] On the other hand, Vice, defined as ‘moral depravity or corruption,’ are the bad side of human beings.[9] These terms are strongly connected to Christian teachings, with the capital vices, or ‘the seven deadly sins’ as ‘pride, envy, anger, sloth, gluttony, greed, and lust;’ while ‘the seven virtues’ being ‘prudence, fortitude, temperance, justice, faith, hope, and love.’[10] Since religious stories and ideas were the dominant theme in European Art, especially in the earlier days, virtue and vice are commonly featured in works of art from the medieval era, Renaissance, and even to this day.[11] Plenty Dutch paintings during 17^th century follow this tradition. However, instead of visualizing the moments described in the Bible, the religious ideas may be presented in a ‘humanized’ way, or combined with the realistic scene of people’s lives as a genre painting. Johannes Vermeer’s painting of Woman Holding a Balance, discussed later in the essay, is one example.

While the traditional Christian view of virtue and vice focus more on the individual, Dutch art also brings the notion to a more social level. The virtue of an individual is not merely being good people themselves, but also as a good citizen in the community, contributing to the growth and prosperity of the young country. Therefore, virtue and vice may also be interpreted as fulfilling one’s ideal roles in the society or not.[12] The appreciated characteristics included being industrious, fulfilling duties as good merchants, guards, officers, students, etc. With domestic households seen as microcosms of the larger polity, it is important that individuals also live up to the expectations of well-behaved members in the family, be it parents, husbands, wives, or maids.[13] Home was the main setting many Dutch paintings by Pieter de Hooch, Nicolaes Maes and Jan Steen, and was called the “tabernacle of virtues” by some moralists.[14]

Women as Paragons of Virtue or Vice

The following paragraphs are the analysis of four paintings from Dutch Golden Age, discussing the presentation of women as models of virtue or vice. Included are scenes within households as well as public spaces, where women are portrayed individually or interacting with members of the family or the broader community. Virtue or vice are interpreted in the tradition associated with religion and morality, besides in terms of social ideals and expectations of citizens in the newly born republic.

Figure 1 Woman Holding a Balance, c.1664, Oil on canvas.
h. 39.7 cm., w. 35cm., Widener Collection , National Gallery of Washington DC.

One of the best-known Dutch Golden Age paintings by Johannes Vermeer is Woman Holding a Balance, depicting a personal and peaceful scene with symbols and implications that have been widely discussed to this day. Standing by the table in the corner the room, a lady holds a balance made of gold. The light coming through the window brightens up her face in addition to the jewelry in the opened case. Her serene facial expression poise between action and contemplation is a reflection of inner peace and morality. In the opposite side is a mirror, symbolizing reflection and self-knowledge.[15]

Behind her is a painting of The Last Judgment hung on the wall, creating a religious association and endowing permanence to the act of balancing.[16] Some argued that the lady is shown as pregnant, and might even be an image of Virgin Mary with the unborn Christ.[17] In the early days, the lady was thought to be weighing pearls or gold in her balance. However recent scientific analysis suggested that the balance is actually empty.[18] Therefore, the object of her contemplation shall be the balance itself.

In summary, the painting express the idea that one should live a life of balanced actions and judgments, perhaps a religious, moderate life, so as to secure the salvation by Christ at the final judgment. The woman, therefore, is shown as a paragon of virtue – temperance, prudence, faith, and even justice.

Figure 2 The Suitor’s Visit, c. 1658, Oil on canvas.  h. 80cm., w. 75 cm.,
Andrew W. Mellon Collection, National Gallery of Washington DC.

The Suitor’s Visit was painted in 1658 by Gerard ter Borch the Younger. It shows a gentleman entering the door, visiting the lady in a satin dress. Behind her is another gentleman and a lady playing a lute, and all these take place in a well-furnished upper-class home. Though there is a certain physical distance between the suitor and the graceful lady, the psychological interaction, or even flirtation, takes place through their gazes and gestures. As with many other of his works, the message of this painting isn’t so straightforward and has led to diverse interpretations.[19] It may be portraying an innocent social visit, or possibly a sexual encounter. The latter seems more obvious by the ‘informed viewers’ who have a better understanding of the art conventions of this period.[20] Interpreted this way, the man might be inquiring the price of her service, and the lady is negotiating with her hand gestures. Meanwhile, the fire and music on the side symbolize the heat of love and desire. Furthermore, it would be noteworthy how the woman may serve as an expression of both virtue and vice. While the suitor bows, the lady stands gracefully and poised at a certain distance. Considering the interaction of glances and gestures, she also seems to have the control over the ‘sale.’ The hints of exchanging sex for cash was depicted with subtlety and ambiguity, hiding in the seeming innocent and elegant settings. This way, she was presented as more reserved, empowered and dignified, showing both gracefulness and flirtation in a twisted way.

Figure 3 Eavesdropper with a Scolding Woman, c. 1655, Oil on panel.
h. 46.3 cm., w.72.2 cm., Harold Samuel Collection, London.

In Eavesdropper with a Scolding Woman, painted in 1655 by Nicolaes Maes, women are vividly presented in household settings. The maid with a mischievous smile points upstairs, inviting the viewer and drawing their attention to the scolding mistress. She seems to be outraged by the scene hidden behind the lifelike curtain, which are possibly in an even worse condition than the untidy pots and utensils on the table to the left.[21] Showcasing an example of bad household management, this painting depicts women as models of two of the Seven Deadly sins – the slothful maid idling around instead of working diligently, and the mistress resorting to wrath instead of moderation. On the other hand, by portraying the topsy-turvy situation in a comical way, the painting also reinforces the social ideal of having good housekeeping, the virtue of Dutch women in that time.

Figure 4 The Vegetable Market in Amsterdam, c.1661-2, Oil on canvas.
h. 97 cm., w. 84 cm., Musee du Louvre, Paris.

This medium-sized oil painting by Gabriel Metsu in 1661-2 depicts the Vegetable Market in Amsterdam. The use of colour is differentiated, with the background of buildings and trees dimmer, and the foreground more vibrant. In addition, the emphasis of light draws viewer’s attention to the figures in the front. In the corner to the right, the basket of vegetables symbolizes the pride of Dutch agriculture, and the humble fruits express the humble start of the nation. Showcasing the vivid interactions between customers and merchants, woman and men, even dogs and roosters, this painting can be seen as an epitome of the public, communal space as well as the life of citizens in Dutch society. Furthermore, the setting is dominated by female, indicating the control and responsibility of Dutch women in household chores, finance and even relationships. For instance, the lady on the left is bargaining with the merchant, with quite strong body language. While there is a man flirting with the well-dressed lady in the middle, she is not responding nor annoyed. Altogether, women are represented with the virtue of taking good charge of domestic chores, responsible and loyal to the family, and one of the integral roles in supporting the economy of the flourishing country.

Discussion and Conclusion

As stated by Westermann in The Art of the Dutch Republic: 1585-1718, ‘many Dutch pictures offered meaningful delight precisely because they oscillate between a faithful reconstruction of reality and a positive or negative articulation of social ideals.’[22] Women were portrayed in different characters indicating virtue or vice in Dutch Golden Age paintings. They may be a ‘humanized’ religious figure showing the merit of contemplation and moderation. They may carry hints of sins, as the focus of earlier studies of Dutch art, yet presented in an obverted and more empowering way.[23] Though confined to their gender roles in the patriarchal society, they may be good or bad examples of citizens in homes, families, communities, and the Dutch society. By depicting women as paragons of virtue or vice in a more realistic, approachable and accessible way, Dutch Golden Age paintings not only reflected the culture and values, but also help reinforce morality among citizens in the young flourishing country.

 

[1] National Galleries of Scotland, “Dutch and Flemish Art.” National Galleries of Scotland. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.nationalgalleries.org/exhibition/dutch-and-flemish-art.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Svetlana Alpers, The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).

[4] Mariët Westermann, “An Invitation to Look.” In The Art of the Dutch Republic: 1585-1718 (London: Everyman Art Library, 1996), 7.

[5] Gerard Koot, “The Portrayal of Women in Dutch Art of the Dutch Golden Age: Courtship, Marriage and Old Age”, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 2015. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/resources/imagesessays/theportrayalofwomenindutchartofthedutchgoldenage.pdf.

[6] Wayne E. Franits, Paragons of Virtue: Women and Domesticity in 17th-century Dutch Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 6.

[7] Simon Schama, “Wives and Wantons: Versions of Womanhood in 17th Century Dutch Art.” Oxford Art Journal 3, no. 1 (1980): 6.

[8] Merriam-Webster, “Virtue.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virtue.

[9] Merriam-Webster, “Vice.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vice.

[10] Shawn R. Tucker, ed. The Virtues and Vices in the Arts: A Sourcebook. (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 2015), 5.

[11] Ibid. 4.

[12] Franits, Paragons of Virtue: Women and Domesticity in 17th-century Dutch Art, 5.

[13] Westermann, “Dutch Ideologies and Nascent National Identity.” In The Art of the Dutch Republic: 1585-1718, 118.

[14] Schama, “Wives and Wantons: Versions of Womanhood in 17th Century Dutch Art,” 8.

[15] Gerhard Langemeyer et al., Gerard ter Borch: Zwolle 1617–Deventer 1681 (The Hague: Koninklijk Kabinet van Schilderijen, 1974), 98.

[16] Arthur K. Wheelock Jr., “Gerard Ter Borch the Younger/The Suitor’s Visit/c. 1658.” Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century, NGA Online Editions. 2014. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.65.html.

[17] Eugene R. Cunnar, “The Viewer’s Share: Three Sectarian Readings of Vermeer’s Woman with a Balance,” Exemplaria 2 (1990): 519.

[18] Wheelock Jr., “Gerard Ter Borch the Younger/The Suitor’s Visit/c. 1658.”

[19] Alison McNeil Kettering, “Ter Borchs Ladies in Satin.” Art History 16, no. 1 (1993): 95.

[20] Ibid. 113.

[21] Westermann, “Dutch Ideologies and Nascent National Identity,” 125.

[22] Westermann, ““An Invitation to Look.” In The Art of the Dutch Republic: 1585-1718, 15.

[23] Xiaohui Lu, “Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Paintings of Women in the Household: The Case Study of Pieter de Hooch,” The University of Melbourne, 2008. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from http://www.melbourneccd.org/articles/XiaHui.pdf.

 

Reference

Alpers, Svetlana. The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.

Cunnar, Eugene R. “The Viewer’s Share: Three Sectarian Readings of Vermeer’s Woman with a Balance,” Exemplaria 2 (1990): 501-536.

Franits, Wayne E. Paragons of Virtue: Women and Domesticity in 17th-century Dutch Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Koot, Gerard. “The Portrayal of Women in Dutch Art of the Dutch Golden Age: Courtship, Marriage and Old Age”, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 2015. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/resources/imagesessays/theportrayalofwomenindutchartofthedutchgoldenage.pdf.

Kettering, Alison McNeil. “Ter Borchs Ladies in Satin.” Art History 16, no. 1 (1993): 95-124.

Langemeyer, Gerhard. et al., Gerard ter Borch: Zwolle 1617–Deventer 1681. The Hague: Koninklijk Kabinet van Schilderijen, 1974.

Lu, Xiaohui. “Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Paintings of Women in the Household: The Case Study of Pieter de Hooch,” The University of Melbourne, 2008. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from http://www.melbourneccd.org/articles/XiaHui.pdf.

Merriam-Webster. “Vice.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vice.

Merriam-Webster. “Virtue.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virtue.

National Galleries of Scotland. “Dutch and Flemish Art.” National Galleries of Scotland. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.nationalgalleries.org/exhibition/dutch-and-flemish-art.

Schama, Simon. “Wives and Wantons: Versions of Womanhood in 17th Century Dutch Art.” Oxford Art Journal 3, no. 1 (1980): 5-13.

Tucker, Shawn R. ed. The Virtues and Vices in the Arts: A Sourcebook. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 2015.

Westermann, Mariët. The Art of the Dutch Republic: 1585-1718. London: Everyman Art Library, 1996.

Wheelock Jr., Arthur K. “Gerard Ter Borch the Younger/The Suitor’s Visit/c. 1658.” Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century, NGA Online Editions. 2014. Retrieved April 30, 2018, from https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.65.html.